I’ve recently been porting the sbv library (of which I was a major contributor to) to Zig. Why? Several reasons: I think the cost of formal methods has drastically reduced because of LLMs. I think Zig is a really good and promising language that I want to succeed and the best way to do that is to write interesting software in it. And because I want to write a symbolic execution engine that targets Zig.

If you know me, you’ll know I’m pretty deep into the Haskell-verse and have been for many years. One of the many things I love about Haskell is that after enough time in the language you get really good at programming the type system to make illegal states unrepresentable. Note that I said program the type system. You typically program the type system to match your domain which then allows the compiler to catch all kinds of gnarly bugs at compile time. This is one of the key payoffs for an expressive strong and static type system.

But there has always been a little wrinkle in this story. The type system is a logic programming paradigm that is based on unification and backtracking. This means that you are (rightfully) limited in what you can program at the type level. Of course there are ways to push more and more into type system and even generate term-level data in the type system that you can then use at runtime. But these are always rather large increases in the complexity of the code base.

Enter Zig and its concept of comptime. Now Zig firmly comes from the engineering culture of programming languages and is mainly concerned with low-level details that most Haskell programmers and type theorists never think twice about. But god dammit Zig is punches way above its weight precisely because it shifts my position as a programmer from a user of the type system to an operator. It gives me the raw tools to program the type system as I see fit, for my system and for my domain. And god dammit its radicalizing me.

Here is an example. In porting sbv, I want to have a type that represents Symbolic values. These are logic variables that are known to the underlying SAT/SMT solver but that carry a type. So the type must denote both of those aspects: that the term I’m typing belongs to the SAT/SMT solver and the type of the term in the solver. Sbv does this in the typical Haskell way using phantom types to tag the symbolic value:

-- | The "Symbolic" value. The parameter @a@ is phantom, but is -- extremely important in keeping the user interface strongly typed. newtype SBV a = SBV { unSBV :: SVal }

-- | A symbolic boolean/bit type SBool = SBV Bool

Now that we have in SBool we can start to write our type safe api. For example, the logical and function should take two SBool and return an SBool, and the logical not should take an SBool and return as SBool:

-- | Symbolic boolean negation sNot :: SBool -> SBool sNot = ...

-- | Symbolic conjunction (.&&) :: SBool -> SBool -> SBool (.&&) ...

and this is enforced in the type system and ill-typed arguments would be caught at compile time.

To write this in Zig we need to be able to write a newtype, to create a nominal type, write a type synonym and then implement phantom types. These are all possible, and dare I say easy:

/// A type constructor for symbolic values. A is a phantom. fn Symbolic(comptime A: type) type { return struct { ast: z3_pkg.Ast } }

/// A symbolic bool pub const SBool = Symbolic(bool);

/// pub fn sAnd(self: SBool, other: SBool) SBool { return .{ .ast = self.ast.@"and"(other.ast) }; }

Symbolic is a type level function that at compile time takes the type A and returns a type. A is a phantom because its never used in the return struct; it solely holds information at the type level. z3_pkg.Ast is untyped and corresponds to sbv’s SVal type. So our SBools are a new type constructed by the application of Symbolic to Zig’s bool type. Finally sAnd is our binary symbolic conjunction, which takes two SBool and returns an SBool. The actual body of sAnd is just a call into the untyped z3 C FFI.

Wonderful! That was easy! Perhaps a bit too easy. To really test Zig let’s try to do the same tricks but for symbolic numerals. Numerals are more tricky because the symbolic operations must work on a range of types. For example here is the symbolic less-then in sbv uses type-classes:

class (Mergeable a, EqSymbolic a) => OrdSymbolic a where ... -- | Symbolic less than or equal to. (.<) :: a -> a -> SBool ...

But Zig does not have any type-classes so what are we to do. Well let’s take a step back and think about type-classes operationally. A type-class in Haskell serves several purposes: it provides instances which declare a type as a member of a set of types, it attaches methods to a type, and it programs the type system. For example, the type-class OrdSymbolic associates the type a with the set of types that have instances for OrdSymbolic. (.<=) is then attached to each of these types through the type-class instances and type-class constraints. And finally OrdSymbolic is a type-level program that says to conclude OrdSymbolic a you need to provide me a Mergeable a and a EqSymbolic a. Well in Zig we can roll our own with some type level functions and constants:

pub fn sLt(self: SNum(T), other: SNum(T)) SBool { return .{ .ast = self.ast.lt(other.ast) }; }

pub fn SNum(comptime T: type) type { comptime if (!isNum(T)) @compileError(std.fmt.comptimePrint("SNum only supports numeric types, got: {}", .{T})); return Symbolic(T); }

fn isNum(comptime T: type) bool { inline for (num_types) |N| { if (T == N) return true; } return false; }

const num_types = .{ Integer, Int64, Word8, Real };

Let’s go step by step. sLT is a term-level function that takes two SNum(T) and concludes a SBool. SNum is our type-class represented as a type-level function that takes a type T and returns a Symbolic(T). SNum works by checking via a comptime if that T has an instance. We implement instances with the helper function isNum which checks that T is a member of the num_types static array. If it isn’t then we directly program the error message for the user. This is what I meant by treating me as an operator rather than a user. I have direct control over my own error messages at compile time for a type error in Zig. Just absolutely wonderful.

So an instance in Haskell such as:

instance SNum Word16 where ...

corresponds to

const num_types = .{..., Word16}

which places Word16 into the set of types that SNum will accept. The check of isNum in SNum is only a membership check. But nothing stops us from adding more type-class constraints. We might easily add isOrd and isMergeable just like sbv has done. Then these checks are preconditions to creating a SNum type. Just like we would have in Haskell. So in just a few lines we have a type-level system that allows us to program instances and program the type level. Albeit with an imperative type-level language rather than a logical one. Now I have not demonstrated associating methods to types, which I declared was one of the purposes of type-classes. Well Zig’s structs already provide this. In fact in my quick and dirty prototype that is exactly how the Symbolic struct is written:

fn Symbolic(comptime T: type) type { return struct { ast: z3_pkg.Ast,

                    ...
  pub fn sAnd(self: SBool, other: SBool) SBool {
      return .{ .ast = self.ast.@"and"(other.ast) };
  }

                    ...
  pub fn sLt(self: SNum(T), other: SNum(T)) SBool {
      return .{ .ast = self.ast.lt(other.ast) };
  }
  ...

};

And this allows us to program like this:

... const x: SInt64 = sInt64("x"); const y: SInt64 = sInt64("y"); const ten = int64(100); solver.constrain(x.sAdd(y).sEq(ten)); const result = solver.checkSat(); std.debug.print("Check result: {s}\n", .{@tagName(result)});

if (result == .sat) { if (solver.getModel()) |model| { defer model.deinit(); std.debug.print("Model:\n{s}\n", .{model.toString() orelse "(null)"}); } }

which yields:

zig build run-simple Check result: sat Model: y -> 0 x -> 100

and let’s say we have a type error:

... const x: SInt64 = sInt64("x"); const y = sBool("y"); const ten = int64(100); solver.constrain(x.sAdd(y).sEq(ten)); ...

which yields:

$ zig build run-simple run-simple +- run exe simple +- compile exe simple Debug native 1 errors examples/puzzles/simple.zig:51:29: error: expected type 'types.Symbolic(types.Int64)', found 'types.Symbolic(bool)' solver.constrain(x.sAdd(y).sEq(ten)); ^

Pretty nice! Hopefully you can see why Zig is so exciting. In my opinion comptime could be radically simpler system to reap a lot the value of advanced type systems such as Haskell’s.